Cathedrals as Astronomical Instruments after Van Helden

The story of the revolution in astronomy that Nicolas Copernicus began in 1543 is well known. Copernicus put the sun in the center of the planetary orbits. Kepler made the orbits into ellipses. Galileo discovered new things in the solar system in support of Copernicus. And Newton tied the new astronomy together with the new physics. Astronomy and cosmology were dangerous subjects in Italy after the trial (суд) of Galileo.

In the 15^th century, the humanist Paolo Toscanelli installed a short north-south line close to the altar of Florence’s great cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Near the summer solstice (солнцестояние), the sun’s image, projected through a hole in a window in the cathedral’s lantern (фонарь) 90 m above the floor, crosses the line. Toscanelli hoped to use this meridian to discover changes in the inclination (наклон) of Earth’s axis.

A century later, the cosmographer Ignatio Danti constructed a small meridian in Florence’s Santa Maria Novella and then a bigger one in Bologna’s San Petronio. This latter (последний) became the central instrument in the reform of precision astronomy during the 17^th century. The improved meridian of San Petronio became an instrument to solve practical astronomical problems. For instance, it could measure the sun’s diameter with sufficient accuracy to show that the Earth’s orbit needed to be halved from its traditional value.

Danti’s original aim had been to determine the length of the tropical year to aid in the correction of the calendar. Indeed, properly performed meridian lines were the most accurate position – measuring instruments. Their measurements were confirmed by transit theodolites late in the 18^th century.

Science, vol. 286, 1999.

Questions to be answered in writing:

1. Who and when began the revolution in astronomy?

2. What is the general concept of the revolution as presented by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton?

3. How was the first meridian constructed in a Florence’s great cathedral and what for?

4. What was the central instrument in the reform of precision astronomy during the 17^th century?

Вариант 4

Задание 1. Перепишите предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s,и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно

a) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола Present Simple,

b) признаком множественного числа имени существительного,

c) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.

1. The mechanism includes stationary housing (муфта) and two moving parts.
2. Researchers can track the position of the fields on the sun’s surface.
3. These modifications reduce a total weight of the cars.
4. The National Gallery includes paintings from British, Spanish and French schools.

Задание 2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, учитывая особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным.

1. A baby mammoth was found in permafrost block in 1977.
2. That storm took place during the last peak of the sun’s activity cycle.
3. Machine tool makers in Taiwan may begin competing in world markets.

Задание 3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.

1. These steel sheets are as thin as 0,040 in (1mm).
2. The results were less severe than initially expected.
3. Compromise serves the interests of nature better than confrontation.
4. The more complex the system, the more robust the software must be.
5. The biggest highway project in the city was stopped.
6. Experience was as important as science in developing the steam turbine.

Задание 4. Перепишите предложения. Распознайте и выделите неопределенные местоимения или их производные. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Siemens sponsored some methodological research into physical science application.
2. No one knew how many bad tubes there were.
3. Not any firm (твердый) decisions have been taken yet.
4. Almost anyone used the Web for research and for communication via e-mail.
5. No explanation is provided anywhere.

Задание 5. Перепишите предложения. Выделите структуру there be. Обратите внимание на временную форму глагола be. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Is there any great variability in properties of these regions?
2. There are three manufacturers of acoustic equipment in Sweden.
3. There will be more detailed information on volcano history from intensive geologic studies.
4. In the last decade there has been an increasing interest for financial support (поддержка) of the poor.
5. There was no delay.

Задание 6. Перепишите предложения, распознайте причастие I и II, определите его функцию. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The people involved are not going to give up easily.
2. Five years ago, a group of Stanford University, demonstrated a data storage system based on holograms.
3. The International Telecommunication Satellite Organization has 14 operating satellites and a spacecraft launched last week.
4. The A-12 is a new aircraft program being reviewed by the Pentagon.
5. Additional Mirages and one Cheyenne 3A are being completed for delivery (доставка) this week.
6. Engineers wanted answers faster than workers could supply them using available technologies.
7. When looking at the events (события) of those years, you feel that the diplomats worked at one speed, while international politics changed much faster.

Задание 7. Перепишите предложения. Найдите в предложениях глагол-сказуемое и определите его видовременную форму в активном и пассивном залоге (Active Voice, Passive Voice).

1. The map will help engineers design safer buildings.
2. A time dependent relation (уравнение) has been proposed by Kapsner.
3. I developed some ideas of my own.
4. The accident was analyzed and problems fixed.
5. Many boys did not have a toy so memorable as an electric train.
6. Hawker is meeting with Japanese officials next month.
7. The oil engine quickly replaced the gas engine.
8. The bullet is also being acted upon by air pressure and by the temperature.
9. The participants of the Conference brought along the ideas and solutions that had been developed in their home environment.
10. The new aircraft will be delivered in October and put into service in November this year.
11. The new more accurate information is transmitted to users via two Earth stations in Italy and France.
12. Why do satellites break down in space when we have advanced technically so much?

Задание 8. Перепишите предложения. Выделите в каждом из них модальный глагол или эквивалент. Переведите предложение на русский язык.

1. This centre is to provide service for military aircraft.
2. These materials can preserve holograms for long periods.
3. This idea should be a component of all professional development programs.
4. Aerospace engineers will be able to solve many difficult aerodynamic problems.
5. A modified receiver is needed to avoid (избежать) interference from new radio stations.
6. Mitsubishi’s learning process must have included both scientific and technical aspects.
7. There may be an element of truth in these.