Discussion and research points

1 'Translation is no longer a phenomenon whose nature and borders are given once and for all, but an activity dependent on the relations within a certain cultural system' (Even-Zohar 1978/2000:197). What are the implications of this comment for translation and translation studies? How far do you agree with it?

2 Consider the position of translation in the polysystem of your own country. Does it occupy a primary or secondary position? Have there been noticeable changes over the years? What about translated literature's own polysystem? Are there variations according to genre, SL, etc.?

3 Look at the different case studies given in Toury's book. What elements do they have in common? What studies could you carry out to test or extend these findings?

4 One of the severest criticisms of Toury's earlier work concerned his use of the

invariant or tertium comparationis. How well do you consider Toury overcomes this problem with his 'coupled pairs' approach in his 1995 book?

5 Carry out a descriptive study of the translation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in another TL Are your findings similar to those given in the case study in this chapter? What generalizations can you then make about the translation process? What hypotheses can you propose and how would you seek to investigate them further?

6 With reference to Toury's work of the 1970s and 1980s, Gentzler (1993: 133) claims that 'recent translation studies has found itself effectively using Toury's model in spite of his theoretical contradictions'. What evidence can you find to support or dismiss this claim? Read the various papers presented in The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans 1985a). How far do they differ from Toury's approach?

7 Follow up the discussion of norms in Toury (1978/2000,1995), Komissarov (1993), Hermans (1996,1999), Chesterman (1997), Nord (1997) and Pym (1998). How far are these scholars discussing the same concept? Can they be merged? How useful are norms in describing translation process and product? Are there other elements or norms which you feel they have omitted?

8 Systems theories have focused exclusively on literary translation. How far do you feel these theories can work for non-fiction and for technical texts?